Delhi sultanate

Delhi Sultanate


In this you can see:-
✨Who founded Delhi Sultanate and why was it called so?
✨Kingdoms involved in Delhi Sultanate
✨Expansions and Decline with Delhi
✨Finally Who got Delhi?


1. Who founded Delhi Sultanate and why was it called so?

Delhi was first with the Tomara dynasty but in the marriage of the daughter to Chauhan King Delhi was given to Chauhans but Ghurid Empire defeated the Chauhans and Delhi.The Ghūrid soldiers of fortune in India did not sever their political connection with Ghūr (now Ghowr, in present Afghanistan. the war created the campaigns of Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Sām (Muḥammad of Ghūr; brother of Sultan Ghiyāth al-Dīn of Ghūr) and his lieutenant Quṭb al-Dīn Aibak between 1175 and 1206 and particularly to victories at the battles of Taraōrī in 1192 and Chandawar in 1194.) but later Quṭb al-Dīn Aibak became the king and conquered Delhi.

2. kingdoms involved in Delhi Sultanate


Chauhan Dynasty


The Chauhans were the feudal lords of Gurjara-Pratiharas, who helped Nagabhata I conquer the borders during the Rajasthan War and protect them from Arab invasion. The Chauhans are believed to be part of the Agnivanshi Clan (relatives of the Fire God). The Chauhan Dynasty had a noticeable influence on the Indian political stage. Prithviraj Chauhan was a Rajput lord who governed the kingdom of Delhi and Ajmer in northern India in the twelfth century; he was one of the last free Hindu rulers to sit upon the throne of Delhi.



Ghurid Empire


After the assassination of Muhammad of Ghore, the slave generals divided the regions of the empire in India among themselves. Qutubuddin Aibak became ruler of Delhi in 1206, establishing the Sultanate of Delhi. Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha became the ruler of Multan in 1210. Similarly, Tajuddin Yildoz assumed the role of the ruler of Ghazni whereas Ikhtiar ud Din Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji became ruler in parts of Bengal.


Mamluk Dynasty


At the time of the murder of Muhammad of Ghore, Kutub-ud-din Aiak was in charge of Delhi and surrounding areas. As the slave generals claimed sovereignty over regions they ruled under Muhammad of Ghore, Aibak also declared himself as the Sultan of Delhi in 1206. The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 marked the start of the Mamluk/Slave Dynasty. Mamluk also spelt Mameluke, a slave soldier, was a member of one of the armies of slaves established during the Abbasid era that later won political control of several Muslim states. Under the Ayyubid sultanate, Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517


Khilji Dynasty


The Khilji or Khalji dynasty ruled from 1290 to 1320 CE after overthrowing the Slave dynasty, thus becoming the second dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. They were Turko-Afghans who came from Afghanistan with Muhammad Ghori. Khiljis were the vassals of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi.


Tughlaq dynasty


The Tughluq dynasty emerged during the period of medieval India and was of Turk-Indian Origin. The dynasty majorly ruled over the Sultanate of Delhi. The Tugluq dynasty emerged in 1320 and ended in 1413 and was ruled by many rulers like Ghazi Malik, Muhammad-bin-Tughluq, etc. India witnessed major changes in domestic and foreign policies during the reign of the Tughluq dynasty.
Sayyid dynasty
The Sayyid dynasty was the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, with four rulers ruling from 1414 to 1451. Founded by Khizr Khan, a former governor of Multan, they succeeded the Tughlaq dynasty and ruled the sultanate as a vassal of the Timurids, until they were displaced by the Lodi dynasty.
Lodhi Dynasty
The Tughluq dynasty emerged during the period of medieval India and was of Turk-Indian Origin. The dynasty majorly ruled over the Sultanate of Delhi. The Tugluq dynasty emerged in 1320 and ended in 1413 and was ruled by many rulers like Ghazi Malik, Muhammad-bin-Tughluq, etc. India witnessed major changes in domestic and foreign policies during the reign of the Tughluq dynasty.

Mughal Empire

Mughal dynasty, or Mogul dynasty, Muslim dynasty that ruled most of northern India from the early 16th to the mid-18th century. The dynasty’s rulers descended from Timur and Genghis Khan, included unusually talented rulers throughout seven generations, and the dynasty was further distinguished by its emperors’ efforts to integrate Hindus and Muslims into a united Indian state

3. Expansions and Decline due to Delhi

Mamluk dynasty

Qutb ud-Din Aibak (Reign: 1206 – 1210)

The first ruler of the Mamluk Dynasty. Born to a Turkish family in Central Asia. Sold as a slave to Muhammad Ghori, the ruler of Ghor in Afghanistan. Aibak rose up the ranks and became Ghori’s trusted general and commander. He was given the charge of Ghori’s Indian possessions after 1192. When Ghori was assassinated, Aibak declared himself Sultan of Delhi in 1206. Started construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi. This is one of the first Islamic monuments in northern India. He began the construction of Qutb Minar in Delhi. He was also known as Lakh Bash (Giver of Lakhs) for his generosity. However, he was also responsible for the destruction and desecration of many Hindu temples. He reigned till his death in 1210. He was said to have been trampled to death by a horse. He was succeeded by Aram Shah.Iltutmish (Reign: 1211 – 1236)

ILTUTMISH(Reign:1211-1236)

Aram Shah was a weak ruler. It is not clear whether he was a son of Aibak or not. He was conspired against by a group of nobles who invited Shamsuddin Iltutmish to be the ruler. Iltutmish was a son-in-law of Aibak. He ruled the Ghurid regions of northern India. He was a Turkic slave born in Central Asia. Iltutmish was the greatest of the slave rulers of Delhi. He shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi. Iltutmish’s forces captured Bihar in the 1210s and invaded Bengal in 1225. During the first half of the 1220s, Iltutmish neglected the Indus River Valley, which was contested between the Mongols, the Khwarazm kings, and Qabacha. Post the decline of the Mongol and the Khwarazmian threat, Qabacha took over the region, but Iltutmish invaded his territory during 1228-1229. He defended his empire against Mongol invaders and also resisted the Rajputs. In 1221, he stopped an invasion led by Genghis Khan. He completed the construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb Minar. He set up administrative machinery for the kingdom. He built mosques, waterworks and other amenities in Delhi, making it fit to be the seat of power. He introduced the two coins of the Sultanate, the silver tanka and the copper jital. Also introduced was the Iqtadari system in which the kingdom was divided into Iqtas which were assigned to nobles in exchange for a salary. He died in 1236 and was succeeded by his daughter Razia Sultana as he did not consider his sons equal to the task.
Razia Sultana (Reign: 1236 – 1240)

Razia sultan(Reign:1211-1236)

Born in 1205 as Iltutmish’s daughter. Was given a sound education by her father. She was the first and last Muslim woman to rule Delhi. Also known as Razia al-Din.Before ascending to the throne of Delhi after her father’s death, the reign was briefly handed over to her half-brother Rukn ud-din Firuz. But after Firuz’s assassination within 6 months of his ascendency, the nobles agreed to place. Razia is on the throne. She was known as an efficient and just ruler. She was married to Malik Ikhtiar-ud-din Altunia, the governor of Bathinda. She was reportedly killed by her brother’s forces. Her brother Muizuddin Bahram Shah succeeded her.
Ghiyas ud din Balban (Reign: 1266 – 1287)
The next notable ruler after Razia. Ninth Sultan in the Mamluk dynasty. He was the wazir of the grandson of Iltutmish, Nasir-ud-din-Mahmud. Born of Turkish origins, his original name was Bahauddin. He was purchased as a slave by Iltutmish. He rose up the ranks quickly. He carried out successful military campaigns as an officer. After Nasir’s death, Balban declared himself the Sultan as the former did not have any male heirs. He carried military and civil reforms in administration which earned him the position of the greatest Sultanate ruler after Iltutmish and Alauddin Khalji. Balban was a strict ruler and his court was the symbol of austerity and strict obedience to the emperor. He even demanded that people prostrate before the king. He laid out severe punishments for the slightest of offences by his courtiers. He had a spy system to keep his nobles in check. He introduced the Persian festival of Navroz in India. Punjab saw large-scale conversions during his rule. After his death, his grandson Qaiqubad succeeded him on the throne of Delhi. Qaiqubad died of a stroke in 1290 and was succeeded by his three-year-old son Shamsuddin Kayumars. Kayumars was murdered by Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji, thus ending the Mamluk Dynasty to replace it with the Khalji Dynasty or Khalji Dynasty.

Khilji dynasty


Jalal-ud-din Firuz Shah
The founder of the Khalji Dynasty in South Asia, Malik Firuz, was originally the Ariz-i-Mumalik appointed by Kaiqubad during the days of the decline of the Slave Dynasty. He was a Gwalior, Samthal, Sakit, and Mewat was conquered by Bahlul Lodi. He died in 1489 A.D.To gain support and recognition, Bahlul Lodi never sat on the throne instead, he opted to sit on the carpet with his nobles.


Ala-ud-din Khilji(12961316)

In 1296 A.D. Ala-ud-din Khilji succeeded Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji and ascended the throne. Ala-ud-din Khiliji’s generals namely, Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan conquered Gujarat. He captured Ranthambore and killed Hamir Deva its ruler. He also captured Malwa, Chittor, Dhar, Mandu, Ujjain, Marwar, Chanderi and Jalor. He was the first Sultan who attacked South India. He sent his confidante and general Malik Kafur against the rulers of the south. Prataprudra-II of Warangal, Ramachandra Deva, the Yadava king of Devagiri, and Vira Ballala-III the Hoysala king were defeated. He constructed a mosque in Rameswaram. The kingdoms of the south acknowledged the power of Alauddin Khilji and paid his monetary tributes.

The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 A.D.)

Khizr Khan (1414- 1421 A.D.)
He was the founder of the Sayyid Dynasty. He did not swear any royal title.
He was the Governor of Multan. He took advantage of the disordered situation in India after Timur’s invasion. In 1414 A.D. he occupied the throne of Delhi. He brought parts of Surat, Dilapur, and Punjab under his control. But he lost Bengal, Deccan, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Khandesh and Malwa.
In 1421 he died. Mubarak Shah Khizr Khan’s son succeeded him.

Mubarak Shah (1421-1434 A.D.)
Mubarak Shah crushed the local chiefs of the Doab region and the Khokhars. He is the first Sultan ruler to appoint Hindu nobles in the court of Delhi. He constructed the “Mubarakbad” City on the banks of the river Jamuna. Muhammad Shah Mubarak’s nephew succeeded him.
Muhammad Shah (1434-1445 A.D.)
He defeated the ruler of Malwa with the help of Bahlul Lodi the Governor of Lahore. He conferred Bahlul Lodi with the title Khan-i-Khanan for help in defeating the ruler of Malwa. Later Ala-ud-din Shah succeeded him.
Ala-ud-din Shah (1445-1457 A.D.)
He was not a strong ruler. Ala-ud-din Shah was removed from the throne by Bahlul Lodi in 1457 A.D. by Bahlul Lodi who was the Governor of Lahore. Delhi was captured by him and he was sent to Badaun. Ala-ud-din Shah died in Badaun in 1478 A.D.



Lodhi Dynasty

Bahlul Lodi (1451 -1489 A.D.)

Bahlul Lodi was the founder of Lodi Dynasty. The Sultanate Period ended with Lodi Dynasty. He was a wise statesman who knew his limits. He took various measures to gratify his nobles. Gwalior, Samthal, Sakit, and Mewat were conquered by Bahlul Lodi. He died in 1489 A.D.
To gain support and recognition, Bahlul Lodi never sat on the throne instead, he opted to sit on the carpet with his nobles.

Sikandar Shahi (1489-1517 A.D.)

Sikandar Shahi was the son of Bahlul Lodi.
He swore the title Sikandar Shah and ascended the throne.
He set up a well-organized spy system.
He developed agriculture and industry.
He put severe restrictions on the Hindus.
Sikandar Shah enjoyed “Shehnai” Music.
A work on music named “Lahjati-Sikandar Shahi” was created during his reign.

End of Lodi Dynasty (1517-1526 A.D.)

Sikandar Lodi was succeeded by Ibrahim Lodi.
Ibrahim Lodi was stubborn and intolerant which were not good qualities in a ruler.
Nobles were killed cruelly and many nobles were humiliated by Ibrahim Lodi.
He also treated his son Dilwar Khan Lodi cruelly.
The Invasion of India was done by Kabul ruler, Babur, at the behest of Daulat Khan, a very powerful noble from Punjab.
In the 1st battle of Panipat in the year 1526 A.D, Ibrahim Lodi faced defeat at the hands of Babur

The Mughal Empire (c. 1526 – 1857 CE)

Babur

The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur, a Central Asian ruler. His original name was Zahiruddin Muhammad. He was related to Timur (the founder of the Timurid dynasty) on his father’s side and to Chengiz Khan (Mongol ruler) through his mother. The Mughals are also referred to as Timurids because they are considered descendants of Timur. In c. 1494 CE, Babur, at the young age of 12, succeeded his father Umar Shaikh Mirza as the ruler of Farghana, a small principality in Transoxiana. Babur won the city of Samarqand twice but lost it in no time on both occasions. The second time, the Uzbek chief, Shaibani Khan defeated Babur and conquered Samarqand. Soon, the Uzbeks overran the rest of the Timurid kingdoms including Farghana. This forced Babur to move towards Kabul which he captured in c. 1504 CE. Like countless earlier invaders from Central Asia, Babur too was drawn towards India due to its enormous wealth.
Babur (c. 1526 – 1530 CE)
Babur was the founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
He established himself first in Kabul (c. 1504 CE) and then moved from Afghanistan into India through the Khyber Pass. Babur conquered the powerful fort of Bhira (c. 1519 – 1520 CE), Sialkot (c. 1520 CE) and Lahore in Punjab. The main reason why Babur coveted the Punjab parganas was the meagre income of Kabul, which was insufficient to maintain an empire. He was also apprehensive of an Uzbek attack on Kabul and considered India to be a good place of refuge and a suitable base for operations against the Uzbeks. The unstable political situation after the death of Sikander Lodhi in c. 1517 CE further helped his entry into India.
It is believed that Babur was invited to fight against Ibrahim Lodhi (son of Sikander Lodhi) by Daulat Khan Lodhi (governor of Punjab), Rana Sanga of Mewar and Alam Khan (uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi). They convinced Babur that the time was ripe for the conquest of the whole of Punjab.
The Battle of Panipat is considered one of the decisive battles of Indian history and it was fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodhi.
It broke the back of Lodhi power and brought under Babur’s control the entire region up to Delhi and Agra.
He also got the rich treasures stored by Ibrahim Lodhi at Agra.
In this battle, Babur’s army was numerically inferior. Ibrahim Lodhi’s army consisted of 100,000 men and 1000 elephants.
Babur had crossed the Indus with an army of only 12000 soldiers. However, the military tactics were efficient and bore results.
Babur used the Ottoman (Rumi) method of warfare, wherein he encircled Lodhi’s army from both flanks.
From the centre, his cavalry mounted an attack with arrows and gunners under expert Ottoman gunners – Ustad Ali and Mustafa, whereas the trenches and barricades provided ample defence against the march of the enemy.
After emerging victorious at the battle of Panipat, Babur proclaimed himself as the ‘Emperor of Hindustan’.
After the battle of Panipat, Babur had to face many difficulties. His nobles and commanders were not prepared for a long campaign in India. They wanted to return to Central Asia and the hot climate of India added to their misery.
Babur’s decision to stay on in India completely changed the situation and he invited the hostility of Rana Sanga. The Rana had expected Babur to return to Kabul and his decision to stay in India was a big jolt to Rana Sanga’s territorial ambitions. Thus, the battle between the two became inevitable.
For the first time since the downfall of the Kushan empire, Kabul and Qandahar became integral parts of the Mughal empire. By dominating them, Babur and his successors were able to protect India from external invasions for almost 200 years. The control over Kabul and Qandahar also strengthened trans-Asian foreign trade, since these two towns were the starting points for caravans meant for China in the east and the Mediterranean seaports in the west.
Babur defeated the Lodhis and smashed the Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sanga. This was a big step towards the establishment of an all India empire.
A new mode of warfare was introduced by Babur in India. His victories led to the rapid popularisation of gunpowder and artillery in India.
He re-established the prestige of the Crown in Delhi, which had been eroded since the death of Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
He was always prepared to share hardships with his soldiers.
Though an orthodox Sunni, Babur was neither bigoted nor led by religious divides. He was a devoted follower of Naqshbandiya Sufi Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar.
Babur was well-versed in Persian and Arabic. He wrote his memoir in Turki, his mother tongue, the Tuzuk-i-Baburi/Baburnama and his work also includes a Masnavi.
He was a keen naturalist and described the flora and fauna of India. He laid out several formal gardens with running water thereby establishing a tradition of building gardens.


Humayun (c. 1530 – 1556 CE)

Humayun succeeded Babur in December 1530 at the young age of 23. Humayun means fortune but is considered the most unfortunate ruler of the Mughal Empire. He had to struggle with several problems left behind by his father. The administration had not yet been consolidated and the finances were precarious. He had to face the hostility of the Afghans and other provincial rulers as they were not fully subdued. This included Bahadur Shah, the provincial ruler of Gujarat and Sher Khan, a powerful Afghan of Bengal. Finally, there was the Timurid tradition of sharing the powers with his brothers, creating multiple centres of power. Kabul, Qandahar and Punjab were under the charge of Humayun’s younger brother, Kamran. Hindal controlled Alwar and Mewat and Mirza Askari held Sambhal.
In c. 1532 CE at Dadrah, Humayun defeated the Afghan forces which had conquered Bihar and overrun Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh. Then he besieged Chunar, a powerful fort that commanded the land and the river route between Agra and the east. This was called the gateway of eastern India and it was under the control of the most powerful Afghan leader, Sher Khan. Humayun signed a treaty with Sher Khan leaving him in full control of the area east of Banaras and also the possession of the fort, in return, Sher Khan promised to be loyal towards the Mughals. The most probable reason for signing this treaty was the advance of Bahadur Shah, ruler of Gujarat towards the Mughal frontiers (Rajputana and Malwa). In such a situation Humayun rushed back to Agra.
Marching towards Malwa, Humayun seized Mandu and then stormed Champaner and Ahmedabad. The rich provinces of Malwa and Gujarat, as well as the large treasures hoarded by the Gujarat rulers at Mandu and Champaner, fell into the hands of Humayun. Humayun placed Gujarat under the command of his younger brother, Askari and he returned to Mandu. However, both Gujarat and Malwa were lost as quickly as they had been gained. Askari was inexperienced and the rapid revival of Bahadur Shah’s power unnerved Askari so he fled to Agra. The only advantage gained from the Gujarat campaign was that it destroyed forever the threat posed to the Mughals by Bahadur Shah and Humayun could concentrate all his resources on the struggle against Sher Khan and the Afghans.
Meanwhile, Sher Khan strengthened his position and became the unquestionable master of Bihar. Humayun marched against Sher Khan and despite their best efforts, it took him six months to besiege Chunar. Sher Khan captured the powerful fort of Rohtas by treachery where he left his family safely. He then invaded Bengal and captured Gaur, its capital. After his victory over Gaur, Sher Khan made an offer to Humayun that he would surrender Bihar and pay an annual tribute of 10 lakh dinars if he was allowed to retain Bengal. However, Humayun rejected the offer as Bengal was the land of gold, rich in manufactures and a centre for foreign trade.
In the Battle of Chausa, near Buxar (c. 1539 CE), Sher Khan defeated Humayun and adopted the title of Sher Shah. Humayun escaped from the battlefield swimming across the river with the help of a water carrier.
After the battle of Chausa, only the fullest unity among the Timurid princes and the nobles could have saved the Mughals. Kamran did not support Humayun and moved out of Agra to Lahore with the bulk of his army. The army hastily assembled by Humayun at Agra was no match against Sher Khan. Askari and Hindal, younger brothers of Humayun, fought bravely but Humayun was defeated at the battle of Kannauj/battle of Bilgrama (c. 1540 CE). This battle decided the issue between Sher Khan and the Mughals. Humayun, now, became a prince without a kingdom and had to flee from Delhi, and became an exile for the next fifteen years (c.1540- 1555 CE).
For the next two and a half years (after the battle of Kannauj) he wandered about in Sindh and its neighbouring areas, hatching various schemes to regain his kingdom. On his way to Sindh, he married Hamida Banu Begum (daughter of Hindal’s teacher). They stayed at Amarkot, a Hindu kingdom ruled by Rana Prasad and in c. 1542 CE, Akbar was born to them. Later Humayun took shelter at the court of the Iranian king and with his help captured Qandahar and Kabul in c. 1545 CE.
In c. 1555 CE, following the breakup of the Sur Empire, he recovered the Mughal throne. However, he did not live long and died (in c. 1556 CE) from a fall from the first floor of the library building in his fort at Delhi. His wife, Haji Begum built a magnificent mausoleum for him near the fort.
One of his loyal officers, Bairam Khan, helped him to come back to India.
Gulbadan Begum, his half-sister wrote Humayun-Nama.
He built a new city named Dinapanah in Delhi.


The Afghan Interlude/Sur Interregnum (c. 1540 – 1555 CE)

Sher Shah Suri (c. 1486 – 1545 CE)
The founder of the Sur dynasty and also the second Afghan empire (after the Lodhis) whose original name was Farid. He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in south Bihar (Jaunpur). Later, Farid served under the Afghan governor of Bihar, Bahar Khan Lohani, who gave him the title of Sher Khan for his bravery (as he killed a tiger).
He acquired great administrative skills by managing the affairs of his father’s jagir. He defeated Sultan Mahmud Shah of Bengal at the battle of Surajgarh and became the eastern province's most powerful Afghan military commander. He defeated Mughal emperor Humayun in the battle of Chausa (c. 1539 CE) and took the title of Sher Shah. He again defeated Humayun in the battle of Kannauj (c. 1540 CE) and declared himself Emperor of Hindustan at 54.
Sher Shah ruled a mighty empire which extended from Bengal to the Indus (except Kashmir). In the west, he conquered Malwa (in c. 1542 CE) and almost the entire Rajasthan. Malden was the ruler of Marwar who brought the whole of western and northern Rajasthan under his control. Sher Shah defeated Maldeo in the famous Battle of Samel (between Ajmer and Jodhpur) in c. 1544 CE. The battle of Samel sealed the fate of Rajasthan, Sher Shah then conquered Ajmer, Jodhpur and Mewar. The last campaign was against Kalinjar (a strong fort that was key to Bundelkhand) in which he succeeded but died from an accidental explosion of gunpowder in c. 1545 CE.
Sher Shah was tolerant towards other faiths, and he employed Hindus at important positions.
He patronised art and architecture. He built the Purana Qila (old fort), Sher Mandal – an octagonal building inside the Purana Qila complex. He also built the Rohtas Fort (a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Pakistan), many structures in the Rohtasgarh Fort in Bihar and Sher Shah Suri masjid in Patna. Sher Shah was succeeded by his son, Islam Shah, who ruled till c. 1553 CE. He had to face several conflicts with his brothers and many Afghan nobles. His death led to a civil war among his successors. This provided Humayun with the opportunity he had been seeking for recovering his empire in India. In c. 1555 CE, Humayun defeated the Afghans and recovered Delhi and Agra.


Although his rule lasted for only five years, he established a well-organized administrative system. The government was highly centralized and consisted of several departments. The king was assisted by four important ministers –Diwan-i-Rasalat: Foreign minister
Diwan-i-Wazarat: In charge of revenue and finance, also called wazir
Diwan-i- Ariz: In charge of the army
Diwan-i-Insha: Minister for communication

The empire consisted of 47 sarkars. In each sarkar, there were two officers, Chief Munsif (judge) and Chief Shiqdar (law and order) who controlled the administration. Each sarkar consisted of several Parganas. Amil (land revenue), fotedar (treasurer), shiqdar (military officer) and karkuns (accountants) controlled the administration of each pargana. Village (Mauza) was the lowest level of administration. There were also many administrative units called iqtas.
The land revenue was well organised and revenue officers were called Amils while Qanungo were the officers in charge of maintaining revenue records. The land assessment was done every year and all cultivable lands were classified into three categories – good, middle and bad. The state’s share was one-third of the average production and it was either to be paid in cash or crop. The area sown, the type of crops cultivated and the amount each peasant had to pay were written on a document called Patta.
Sher Shah introduced new copper coins called Dam, which were in circulation until coins c. 1835 CE. He also introduced silver Rupayia (1 Rupayia = 64 Dams) and gold coin (Ashrafi/Mohur).
Sher Shah also improved communication by laying four important highways. They were: Sonargaon (in Bengal ) to Sindh — Sher Shah restored the old imperial road called “The Grand Trunk road” (by Ashoka).
Agra to Burhampur.
Jodhpur to Chittor.
Lahore to Multan.


Rest houses (sarais) were built at a distance of every two kos (8 km) on the highways for the convenience of travellers. Every Sarai was guarded by watchmen who were under the control of a Shahna (custodian). His roads and sarais have been called “the arteries of the empire”. Police were efficiently organized and crime was less during his reign.